DISRAELI

Why was there a Conservative victory in 1874?

1) Weaknesses in the Liberal party (see previous notes)

Gladstone's policies alienated sections of the Liberal coalition.

2)Conservative advantages in ORGANISATION and VISION.

Organisation had been improved as a result of the setback of 1868: they were confined to county seat and there was only one working class Conservative area - this was based on Anti-Catholic, Anti-Irish sentiment (Irish immigrants in Lancashire forcing down wages) as opposed to class.

Also, Conservative Central office had been formed by Gorst, as well as the NUCCA (National Union of Conservative Constituency Associations), which selected candidates.

Vision - Disraeli attempts to re-brand Conservatism in 1872: this can be seen in speeches at Manchester Free Trade Hall and to the NUCCA at the Crystal  Palace.

Disraeli draws on long-held ideas of preservation of institutions. He adds a few new elements and attacks the current Liberal government. These speeches talked about:

a) The maintenance of institutions - as shown in Vindication of the English Constitution - 1835 - this was a defence of the Lords, C of E, and the Crown. The speech has political resonance in 1872 as the Liberals have disestablished the Church of Ireland, and the Land Act poses a threat to the landed classes. His defence of the Monarchy is useful in 1872 as the Prince of Wales has just recovered from cholera, and thus the speech establishes the conservatives as the party for the Monarchy.

b) The preservation of the Empire - Disraeli wants to hold onto the self-governing white settler colonies: he criticises the way the Liberals make the colonies pay for their own defence. He wants to preserve the existing empire as opposed to expand it: this is for reasons of prestige - "Empires make nations great" (Disraeli) as they get you taken seriously in Europe.

c) The "National Party" - the Conservatives represent the whole nation: this idea is shown in Vindication of the English Constitution. The Whigs only represent different factions - they only represent select groups.

d) Social reform - some see this as a link back to the 1840s, where Disraeli was the focal point for Young England, a group of Tory backbenchers with a romantic ideal of medieval feudal structure where there was one nation: responsibilities bound everyone together: in the industrial society, there were two nations. In 1872, Disraeli has no programme for social reform. He thinks that there should be small social reforms to take the emphasis off parliamentary reform.

BUT by 1874, Disraeli's major theme in the election is repose: he wants a break from the reforms of Gladstonian Liberalism.

Disraeli is modelling himself on Palmerston: domestic tranquillity and asserting Britain's interests abroad.

1874 produced an unexpected Conservative victory. This was the first Conservative majority since 1841. Despite these gains in Liberal heartland's, they are very much an English National Party. They are consolidated in the counties and have made gains in the boroughs, especially London and Lancashire (they win 18/25 seats in Lancashire due to anti-Catholic, Anti-Irish sentiment). Of the largest boroughs, they win 44 of 114. This was due to the constituency associations. They are still a party made up of landowners.

The middle classes are voting Conservative, as they have a stake in the system that Gladstonian Liberalism is threatening by its extensive reform. They vote Conservative because of the policy of repose that the Conservatives have won't harm them further. This is the first observation of, as Frederick Harrison put it, Villa Toryism - suburban people supporting the Conservatives.

Disraeli in government.

Disraeli's cabinet is predominantly aristocratic: out of 12, half are in the Lords, and 4 are large landowners. 1 is Richard Cross (representative of Lancashire).

Disraeli doesn't interfere much with his cabinet: he doesn't interfere and isn't interested in details. He just sets an overall tone for them to work to.

Social reform

Disraeli has no concern with social reform: he fell asleep in a cabinet meeting when social reform was being discussed.

Mythology: Disraeli had a commitment to social reform as a way to create "Tory Democracy" - the inclusion of the working classes in the Conservative party. This myth dates back to the Young England movement in the 1840s. Most historians dismiss this idea.

Disraeli provides a substantial measure of social reform in terms of quantity, as perceived by historians and contemporaries.

Major pieces of legislation:

1875

Public Health Act

Artisans Dwellings Act

Sale of food and drugs Act

Sandham's education Act

1876

Pollution of Rivers Act - illegal to dump solid or toxic fluid industrial waste in rivers.

Enclosures Act - asserts the public right to use common pastureland

Merchant Shipping Act - introduces the plimsoll line on ships. Government insists this load line is painted by the owners, not the government, as it would infringe on private property.

Legislation for trade unions:

1875:Conspiracy and protection of Property Act - legalises peaceful

picketing

1876:Employees and workmen Act - this puts employees and workmen on an equal footing for breach of contract cases.

 

Disraeli said "it would gain and retain for the Conservatives the lasting affection of the working classes". It didn't.

 

Features of Disraeli's social reform:

 

1) Social reform starts in 1875, yet the Conservatives won in 1874. This shows that, at first, the Conservatives had no social reform programme. They needed to find their feet. They had also been elected on their idea of repose. Also, in 1874, they are repaying their debts - this keeps them busy. They do this with the Intoxicating Liquors Bill with relaxed Gladstone's legislation.

2) Reform doesn't happen after 1876, as foreign policy dominates.

3) reforms are not Disraeli's initiative - he wasn't interested. They are all done by his lessers: individuals within the cabinet such as Richard Cross (Home Secretary), and administrative people, such as George Schuler Booth - president of the local government board. Disraeli created an overall environment, but the details of the reforms are left to others.

Cross was responsible for:

• Trade Union Legislation
• The Factory Act
• African Dwellings Act

Booth was responsible for:

• Pollution of Rivers Act
• Sale of food & drinks Act
• Public Health.

Some measures were a constitution and consolidation of previous legislation.

Some measures were a continuation and consolidation of previous legislation.

Some result from Royal commissions appointed by the Liberals: e.g.: Merchant Shipping, Friendly Society, and pollution controls.

Some measures were the product of the administrative pipeline, e.g.: the Artisan Dwellings Act was done upon the recommendation of a London medical officer.

The Conservatives provided politically uncontentious reform. E.g.: the Liberals were ready to introduce similar trade union legislation.

It is also uncontentious because Disraelian reform is not the traditional Tory paternalism of the 1830's and 1840's. for the most part, the reforms are within the consensus of political economy : efficiency and laissez-faire. These ideas control the scope and effectiveness of the legislation: the reforms promote individualism, self-help, minimal government intervention, and retrenchment.

 

Eg: Cross' Factory Bill

This goes towards meeting demands for 9 hour days for women and children without regulating men's hours statutorily. If this had been done, it would have been unwarranted intervention: ie: against the government's laissez-faire policy

 

Merchant Shipping Act

The government wouldn't go as far as Plimsoll wanted - compulsory inspection and load lines on all merchant shipping. This would be coercive use of state power. As in all cases, the legislation is permissive, not compulsory - people are encouraged to paint the lines, but the government doesn't require them to. Compulsory would mean too big a role for the state.

 

The non-compulsory principle can also be seen in the Education Act. Sandham  wanted compulsory education from 10-14. This is achieved indirectly by prohibiting 10-14s from working unless they have a certificate of school attendance. This encourages parents to send their children to school.

Artisans Dwellings Act - local authorities can clear slum housing if there were poor sanitary conditions - the central government would aid financing the purchase of the land. However, they aren't required to do so, and within a decade, only 10 local authorities had instituted it. also limited as new housing was left entirely to the private sector: the authority couldn't build 'council houses' on it.

The Sale of Food and Drugs Act - was against adulterated foods. There is no compulsion for Local Authorities to employ food analysts.

The Pollution of Rivers Act leaves the definition of "toxic" to local judges, who would be interested in promoting local business interests.

Social reform is strained due to a commitment to low taxation: things couldn't be bureaucratic as a result (Chamberlain thought that money for state intervention had to come from tariffs.

Foreign and Imperial Policy

Mythology:

• Disraeli makes the Conservative party the party of empire through a programme of expansion and acquisition (his commitment to empire had been made in speeches in 1872)

• Gladstone’s critique of Disraeli’s foreign policy was articulated in the 1876 Bulgarian agitation and the Midlothian campaign of 1879-80. The former marked the end of Gladstone’s retirement, and the latter the start of his 1880 election campaign.

• Gladstone’s argument focused on the Eastern Question  he says Disraeli’s programme is immoral, expansionist, aggressive and costly (Gladstone calls this Beaconsfieldism) Disraeli is only interested in prestige, and thus his foreign policy needs a more moral basis.

 

These myths are exaggerated, but they do contain some truths. Disraeli’s interest in empire can be tracked back to the 1830’s, but it is not a major preoccupation until the 1870s, when he sees that Gladstone isn’t using Palmerston’s technique of foreign policy that had been so popular. Disraeli thus sees a chance to steal Palmerston’s mantle for the Conservative Party and himself.

Disraeli’s view of empire

• Disraeli wanted to preserve, not expand the empire. This is illustrated in 1872 with reference to the white settler colonies.
• Empires bring prestige, which gives the country influence in Europe.

Prestige is one reason for the defence of India, as it had commercial value. Thus, much energy is spent in securing both India and the two routes to it: round the cape and through the French-built Suez canal (built in 1869)

In foreign policy, there is no programme for imperial expansion (parallel with domestic issues). Also, many of the specifics are left to Disraeli’s lessers.

Proof of Disraeli’s unwillingness to expand can be seen in his lack of interest in acquisitions: with Fiji (1874), the detail is left to the colonial secretary (Canarvon) and the policy is inherited from Kimberley, the previous Liberal colonial secretary. However, Disraeli makes capital out of it to show that the Conservative party is the party of empire.

Similarly, there is no forward policy in South Africa: the management is again left to Canarvon: he has to deal with the division between the South African republics and tribes. By the Spring of 1877, the Boer republic of Transvaal was on the brink of war with the Zulus. It was also bankrupt! Canarvon wants to negotiate the inclusion of the Transvaal into the federation of republics and tribes that he is trying to achieve. The negotiator, Theophilus Shepstone, annexes it in April 1877.

However, Sir Bartle Frere, the High Commissioner of South Africa, negotiates with the Zulus to include them in the federation, and demands that they disarm. Being a military monarchy, they don’t. Frere concludes that, sooner or later, they will have to be suppressed. But the cabinet is reluctant to back his policy. Eventually, they do sent the reinforcements he needs, but they specify they are only to be used for defensive purposes.

Frere attacks the Zulus in January 1879. At ISLANDLWHANA, the Zulus kill 1,500 troops. It now becomes more important to defend the nation’s pride than reprimand Frere for disobeying orders. Hence, the British fight a war which the Zulu’s lose.

This aggressive foreign policy resulted from an overstepping of orders, and not Disraeli. Within the context of Disraeli’s emphasis on prestige, it isn’t surprising that people acted in the way that they did.

India

India is vulnerable. In 1847, the Indian mutiny had taken a long time to suppress, so there is a fear of losing the grip on India.

The Royal Titles Act 1856 declared Victoria an empress: she is now the equivalent of the Tsar. This Act communicates to the Russians how determined the British are to hold onto India.

It is important to protect the Cape Route to India for defensive reasons.

The Afghanistan Crisis

Disraeli is trying to keep the Russians out of India (Afghanistan is on India’s border, and it is vital that the Russians don’t occupy it). There is a war in December 1878, when the Amir of Afghanistan accepts a Russian delegation into the country, but refuses to accept a British delegation.  There is a British invasion, and a treaty allows a British resident in Cabul: Louis Cavagnari. However, Afghan nationalists murder the whole delegation (including the resident). In 1879, war is resumed on the initiative of Lord Lytton, the Viceroy of India.

The Suez Canal

India influences the purchase of this French-Built canal.

Britain had initially opposed the French-Built scheme as the Royal Navy had control of the only route to India (around the cape). However, they couldn’t take control of “a ditch in someone else’s territory”. Thus, for £4m, Disraeli purchases a 44% stake from the Khedive of Egypt, who is selling as Egypt is bankrupt. This is presented as a diplomatic coup, as:

• Disraeli has safeguarded the route to India.
• Disraeli has countered French influence.

Disraeli isn’t interested in annexing Egypt, but Egyptian finances are so poor that Egypt comes under French and British control in 1879. Gladstone occupied Egypt in 1882.

The defence of India is a key element of these policies: they don’t intend to expand the empire, but this is necessary in order to defend India.

Disraeli is interested in traditional foreign policy issues, such as the Balance of Power  he sees foreign policy as the proper pursuit of a statesman: REAL POLITICS. This is a result of his outsider status: he needs to establish his reputation.

Disraeli’s guiding principles:

• PALMERSTON
• British interest and presence preserved vis a vis the European powers.
• To end the appearance of weaknesses  eg: Gladstone and the Black Sea Clause: he only had one option, and Disraeli doesn’t want to get into a similar situation.

Disraeli is jealous of Bismarck: both his position, and the Dreikaiserbund of 1873 (an ‘alliance’ between Austria, Russia and Germany)  Britain has little influence in European politics.

MAJOR ISSUE  Eastern Question

 This revolved around what to do about the break-up of the Ottoman Empire  how to achieve stability in the Balkans and how to maintain the Balance of Power, especially Russia’s power.

The traditional 19^th Century British policy is to preserve the empire, as it will hinder Russian expansion.

Why does the issue flare up in the 1870’s?

BALKAN NATIONALISM  In 1875, Bosnia and Herzegovina rise against the Turks. This draws in the interests of most of the larger powers:

Turkey -the uprising threatened the structure of her empire, and could cause a break-up

Russia and Austria - because of competition

Germany -Because Russia and Austria were involved: Germany feared that if she wasn't interested, the DKB (Dreikaiserbund) would break up

France - Wanted a say

Disraeli - doesn't care: he is unsympathetic to nationalism: "Fancy autonomy for Bosnia with a mixed population. Autonomy for Ireland would be less absurd".

 

The powers of the DKB want Turkey to reform its relations with its outlying provinces. They stress this need in the ANDRASSY NOTE to Turkey.

After sending the note, they ask Britain to support them. Disraeli is offended that he wasn't consulted at first - the man who was taking Palmerston's mantle didn't like Britain being demoted to a second class superpower.

The significance of the crisis in Britain is escalated by:

• The PORTE (Turkish Government) fails to reform.
• Nationalist disturbances spread to Bulgaria
• Gladstone intervenes (taking an Anti-Turkish stance due to the May 1876 "Bulgarian atrocities" - the mistreatment of Christians. Disraeli is insensitive to this, dismissing it as "coffee house babble".

By the summer of 1876, there is a campaign in the national press for an anti-Turkish foreign policy in defence of the Bulgarian Christians.

Gladstone joins this campaign in September 1876. He published a pamphlet called "The Bulgarian Horrors".

Gladstone has found an issue that will unite the party and is using it to bring himself back into power. This is an example of Gladstonian opportunism.

In May 1876, the DKB tried to put more pressure on Turkey to reform in the Berlin Memorandum. Disraeli disassociated himself from this. Furthermore, he practises Palmerstonian diplomacy by sending the fleet to Besika Bay to defend the integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

Disraeli takes an uncritically pro-Turkish position. He is forced to do this because of:

• Fear of Russian expansion
• Distrust of Germany
• Gladstone's position

The cabinet is very divided over the issue. Lord Darby, the foreign secretary, criticised Disraeli's policy as having too much emphasis on prestige. Darby and Canarvon resign twice over the issue - they want a non-interventionist policy. Salisbury, the foreign secretary after Darby's resignation, believed that they were "backing the wrong horse".

Disraeli is using anti-Russian sentiment at home = JINGOISM.

This leads to Turkish intransigence against reform: the European powers weren't united, so the Turks can play them off against each other. This leads to a Russo-Turkish War in 1877. This ends with the San Stefano Treaty (1878).

Britain seemed to be very close to war: when war is declared, Britain stays neutral, conditional on:

1) The non-violation of Constantinople

2) The non-violation of Egypt and Suez

3) Free passage through the Dardonells

 

But, as the Russians approach Constantinople, Indian troops are sent to Malta, and the British fleet to Constantinople. But there is no British intervention (Palmerstonian threat).

San Stefano created a "Big Bulgaria". Britain is unhappy with this as she fears it will become a Russian satellite.

Austria hated the treaty as well, because it created Russian preponderance in the Balkans. Germany was also unhappy, as she felt the treaty threatened the DKB. As a result of all three powers being discontent, they were able to bring Russia to the negotiating table at the Conference of Berlin - June & July 1878

The Congress of Berlin - 1878

Why it happens:

Germany, Austria, and Britain are unhappy with the treaty of San Stefano.

The congress is seen as Disraeli's finest hour. But:

• Salisbury had done much of the negotiation. In advance.
• Salisbury: "What with deafness, ignorance of French, and Bismarck's extraordinary motive speech", Disraeli had only the dimmest idea of what was going on.
• The fact that the Congress was in Berlin shows the increased importance of Germany in Europe.
• Disraeli addresses the conference in English … because his French is so bad!
• However, Disraeli broke the mould at the conference by "ordering a train home" - this made the Russians make concessions quickly. But it was bad as it showed him to be arrogant.

Disraeli claimed he had gained "Peace with honour" for Britain. He also stated that Britain was now in a position to dictate to Europe ("Victoria is the dictatress of Europe") - the latter is not true.

Achievements of the Congress:

1)Bulgaria was broken up. East Roumelia -> Turkey.

2)Preserved the Ottoman Empire.

3)Russia gets Romanian land.

4)Austria got a protectorate over Bosnia-Herzegovina - this ensured more   stability for Austria.

5)Britain gets Cyprus from the Turks in return for Britain defending Turkey's Asian territory.

6)Germany gets stability in the Balkans to prevent conflict between Austria and Russia.

There was a diplomatic victory, but for the wrong policy: it would have been more productive to give up the Ottoman Empire in Europe.

Darby (upon his resignation) to Salisbury in 1877:

"He believes thoroughly in prestige as all foreigners do. And would think quite sincerely in the interests of the country to spend £20m if the result would make foreign states think more highly of us".